Explore Kidney Stones and Experience The Best Kidney stone treatment in Delhi

About Kidney Stones

Kidney stones, also known as renal calculi or urinary stones, are solid formations that develop in the kidneys due to the accumulation of minerals and acidic salts. Their size can range from tiny particles to as large as a golf ball.

These stones can cause severe pain, discomfort, and other symptoms such as blood in the urine, nausea, and vomiting.

Kidney stones are a common but extremely painful condition that occurs when certain substances in the urine, such as calcium, oxalate, and uric acid, become highly concentrated and form crystals. Over time, these crystals grow larger and turn into stones.

There are several types of kidney stones, and each has a different composition:

Calcium stones : Calcium stones are the most common type of kidney stones. They are made of calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate.
Uric acid stones : Uric acid stones form when the level of uric acid in the urine becomes too high..
Struvite stones : Struvite stones are caused by urinary tract infections (UTIs) and are composed of magnesium, ammonium, and phosphate.
Cystine stones : Cystine stones occur in people who have a rare genetic disorder, which causes the kidneys to excrete excess amounts of a specific amino acid through the urine.

Signs and Symptoms of Kidney Stones

The symptoms of kidney stones can vary depending on the size, location of the stone, and whether it is causing an obstruction or infection. Common symptoms of kidney stones include:

Severe Pain: One of the most prominent symptoms of kidney stones is intense pain in the back or on one side of the body (flank area). The pain may start suddenly and can radiate to the lower abdomen or groin. It is often extremely severe and may come in waves.
Blood in Urine (Hematuria): The presence of blood in the urine, known as hematuria, is another common symptom of kidney stones. The urine may appear pink, red, or brown, indicating the presence of blood.
Frequent and Urgent Urination: Kidney stones can irritate the lining of the urinary tract, leading to an increased frequency of urination and a sudden urge to urinate.
Painful Urination: Pain or burning may be felt while urinating. This can be due to inflammation or irritation caused by the stone in the urinary tract.
Cloudy or Foul-Smelling Urine: Kidney stones may sometimes cause changes in the color and smell of urine. The urine may appear cloudy or have an unpleasant odor.
Nausea and Vomiting: In some cases, pain from a kidney stone can be accompanied by nausea and vomiting. This can occur either due to severe pain or the body's reaction to the presence of the stone.

Not all kidney stones show symptoms. The severity and type of symptoms can vary from person to person. In some cases, a kidney stone may be asymptomatic and may be detected incidentally during imaging tests or routine check-ups.

If you experience any of these symptoms or suspect that you may have a kidney stone, it is essential to seek medical consultation for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Kidney Stones: Causes and Risk Factors

Several factors contribute to the formation of kidney stones, including dehydration, diet, lifestyle, and certain medical conditions. Dehydration is a major risk factor, as a lack of sufficient water in the body leads to concentrated urine, which promotes the formation of crystals that can develop into stones. It is recommended to drink 2.5 to 3 liters of water daily, especially in hot climates where fluid loss through sweat is higher.

Dietary habits also play an important role. Excessive consumption of salt, sugar (especially fructose), oxalate-rich foods like spinach and dry fruits, and animal protein disrupt the chemical composition of urine and increase the likelihood of stone formation.

Obesity is another significant risk factor, as it causes changes in metabolism, leading to increased levels of calcium and uric acid in the urine.

If there is a family history of kidney stones, the chances of developing them are higher. This is due to genetic factors such as hypercalciuria or cystinuria.

Some medical conditions further increase the risk of kidney stones:

Hyperparathyroidism (excess calcium in the body)
Gout – characterized by elevated levels of uric acid in the body
Diabetes or Metabolic Syndrome – both affect the pH and composition of urine

Certain medications can also aggravate the problem, such as:

Diuretics (thiazides)
Calcium-based antacids
Medications like Topiramate

A sedentary lifestyle also contributes by slowing metabolism and encouraging the buildup of stone-forming minerals in the body.

Importantly, kidney stones are increasingly being reported in children, primarily due to diets high in salt, sugary drinks, and processed snacks. Therefore, raising awareness about proper hydration and balanced nutrition is crucial for people of all age groups.

Complications of Kidney Stones

Kidney stones can lead to serious complications if untreated, including chronic kidney damage from prolonged blockages and recurrent stones, with a 50% chance of reoccurrence within 5-7 years. They can also cause severe pain, urinary obstructions leading to hydronephrosis, and infections like UTIs or sepsis, which may become life-threatening if bacteria spread to the bloodstream. Check below Serious Complications of Untreated Kidney Stones:

1. Urinary Obstruction:

If a kidney stone gets stuck in the ureter, it can block the flow of urine.
This can lead to severe pain in the back or abdomen (renal colic).
Prolonged obstruction can cause permanent damage to the kidney.

2. Kidney Infection (Pyelonephritis):

Blockage due to stones can allow bacteria to grow in the urine, leading to infection.
Symptoms may include fever, chills, burning sensation while urinating, foul-smelling urine, or back pain.
If the infection spreads through the body, it can lead to a life-threatening condition called sepsis.

3. Loss of Kidney Function:

Persistent obstruction or repeated infections can gradually reduce kidney function.
If both kidneys are affected, it may lead to Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and even require dialysis.

4. Hydronephrosis (Swelling of the Kidney):

When urine cannot drain out properly, it backs up into the kidney.
This causes swelling and pressure, which can damage kidney tissue.

5. Sepsis (Bloodstream Infection):

If the infection caused by kidney stones is not treated in time, it can spread throughout the body.
Sepsis is a medical emergency and can be life-threatening.

6. Damage to the Urinary Tract:

Sharp or large stones can damage the walls of the urinary tract.
This may cause bleeding, infection, or block the flow of urine.

7. Recurrent Kidney Stones:

If the root causes are not properly identified and treated, stones may keep forming repeatedly.
This increases the risk of experiencing all the above complications again and again.

Consider Following Tips to Avoid kidney stones:

Stay Hydrated: Drink plenty of water throughout the day to keep your urine diluted, making it harder for stones to form. Aim for 8-10 glasses per day or more if you're active.
Limit Salt Intake: High salt consumption can increase calcium in the urine, raising the risk of kidney stones. Try to limit your sodium intake by avoiding processed foods and adding less salt to meals. The World Health Organization (WHO) advises adults to limit their salt intake to less than 5 grams (approximately 1 teaspoon) or 2 grams of sodium per day.
Eat a Balanced Diet: Focus on a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. This can help maintain a healthy pH balance in your urine and reduce the risk of stone formation.
Reduce Oxalate-Rich Foods: Certain foods like spinach, beets, and nuts are high in oxalates, which can contribute to the formation of calcium oxalate stones. If you're prone to this type of stone, consider limiting these foods. The recommended daily calcium intake for most adults is 1,000 milligrams (mg), increasing to 1,200 mg for women over 50 and men over 71.
Limit Animal Protein: High-protein diets, especially from animal sources like red meat, poultry, and eggs, can increase uric acid in the urine, raising the risk of uric acid stones. Consider plant-based proteins like beans and legumes.
Maintain a Healthy Weight: Obesity can increase the likelihood of kidney stones, so aim for a healthy weight through a balanced diet and regular exercise.
Citrate-Rich Foods: Foods high in citrate, such as lemons and oranges, can help prevent kidney stones by binding to calcium and preventing stone formation.
Monitor Calcium Intake: Don't eliminate calcium from your diet, as too little calcium can increase the risk of stone formation. Instead, aim for a moderate intake of calcium from food sources like dairy and leafy greens.
Avoid Excessive Vitamin C: High doses of vitamin C can increase oxalate levels in the urine, which may contribute to stone formation. Stick to the recommended daily amount.
Consult Your Doctor: If you have a history of kidney stones, choose your doctor may recommend medications or dietary changes to reduce the risk of recurrence. Regular checkups can help catch any early signs of kidney stones.

Kidney Stones Care at MASSH Hospital, Delhi

At MASSH Hospital in Delhi, we specialize in the comprehensive care and treatment of kidney stones, a common condition that can cause severe pain, discomfort, and urinary complications. Kidney stones form when minerals and salts in the urine crystallize, leading to stone formation. These stones can vary in size and may cause symptoms such as sharp pain in the back or side, blood in the urine, nausea, and frequent urination.

Our expert urologists provide advanced diagnostic services to accurately identify the size, type, and location of kidney stones. Based on the results, we offer personalized treatment options tailored to your needs, including medical management, non-invasive treatments, and minimally invasive surgical procedures. For smaller stones, we may recommend medication and lifestyle changes to facilitate natural passage. For larger or more complex stones, we use advanced technologies to break down stones or minimally invasive procedures such as ureteroscopy to remove them.

At MASSH Hospital, we focus on providing effective treatment with minimal recovery time. Our team of skilled urologists and surgeons are dedicated to ensuring the best possible outcome for each patient, with a focus on long-term prevention and improved quality of life.

If you are experiencing symptoms of kidney stones or need a consultation, visit MASSH Hospital in Delhi. Our expert team is here to offer you the highest level of care and support to help you overcome kidney stones and prevent future occurrences.

At MASSH, our expert team of urologists is here to help you diagnose and manage this condition, using a variety of surgical approaches tailored to your unique needs. Our goal is to help you achieve relief from your symptoms and prevent future complications. Don't let kidney stones affect your quality of life. Contact us today to schedule an appointment and take the first step towards a healthier you.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Kidney stones are hard, crystalline deposits formed from minerals and salts in the kidneys when urine becomes concentrated, causing crystals to bind together. Ranging in size from a tiny grain to a golf ball, these stones may remain in the kidney or move through the urinary tract, sometimes causing significant discomfort. Symptoms include intense, wave-like pain in the side, back, or lower abdomen, often described as sharp or cramping. Urination may be painful or accompanied by a burning sensation, and urine can appear pink, red, or brown due to blood. Other signs include cloudy or foul-smelling urine, frequent urination, or a persistent urge to urinate. Nausea, vomiting, and, in cases of infection, fever or chills may also occur. While small stones might pass without notice, larger ones can cause severe pain and may require medical intervention. If you experience these symptoms, seek advice from a healthcare professional.

Kidney stones develop when urine becomes highly concentrated, allowing minerals and salts to crystallize and form hard deposits. This process is driven by several factors. Dehydration, often due to inadequate fluid intake, reduces urine volume, concentrating stone-forming substances like calcium, oxalate, and uric acid. Dietary habits, such as consuming excessive oxalate-rich foods (e.g., spinach or nuts), high sodium, or too much animal protein, can elevate these substances in urine. Certain medical conditions, including hyperparathyroidism, gout, or recurrent urinary tract infections, disrupt mineral metabolism or urine composition, increasing stone risk. Genetic predisposition also plays a role, as a family history of kidney stones can indicate inherited traits affecting mineral processing. Additionally, obesity, sedentary lifestyles, or metabolic disorders can alter urine chemistry, promoting stone formation. Some medications, like diuretics, or overuse of calcium-based antacids may contribute as well. Low urine output, abnormal urine pH, or insufficient stone-inhibiting substances, such as citrate, further exacerbate the risk. Consulting a healthcare provider can help pinpoint specific causes and offer tailored prevention strategies.

Certain groups are more likely to develop kidney stones due to a combination of physiological, lifestyle, and genetic factors. Men are at higher risk than women, with stones being most common in adults aged 20 to 50, though they can occur at any age. Individuals with a family or personal history of kidney stones are more prone, as genetic traits can influence how the body handles minerals like calcium or oxalate. Those living in hot climates or with inadequate fluid intake face increased risk due to dehydration, which concentrates urine and promotes crystal formation. Dietary habits, such as high consumption of sodium, oxalate-rich foods (e.g., spinach, beets), or animal protein, elevate the likelihood. Obesity, diabetes, or metabolic disorders like hyperparathyroidism and gout are significant risk factors, as they alter urine chemistry. People with chronic urinary tract infections, inflammatory bowel disease, or a history of gastric bypass surgery are also more susceptible due to changes in urine composition. Sedentary lifestyles and certain medications, such as diuretics or calcium-based antacids, can further increase the risk. Regular hydration and dietary adjustments can help mitigate these risks, but those with concerns should consult a healthcare provider for personalized advice.

Kidney stones are diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests to confirm their presence, size, location, and composition. A healthcare provider begins by assessing symptoms, such as severe flank or abdominal pain, blood in urine, or urinary issues, and reviewing risk factors like family history, diet, or dehydration. Blood tests may be used to check for elevated levels of calcium, uric acid, or other substances that contribute to stone formation, as well as to evaluate kidney function. Urine tests, often collected over 24 hours, analyze levels of stone-forming minerals (e.g., calcium, oxalate) and stone-inhibiting substances (e.g., citrate) to identify metabolic abnormalities. Imaging tests are critical: a non-contrast CT scan is the most common and accurate method, detecting stones of all sizes and their location in the urinary tract. Ultrasound is a radiation-free alternative, often used for pregnant patients or children, though it may miss smaller stones. X-rays (KUB) can identify larger stones but are less sensitive for smaller or certain stone types. In some cases, a stone passed in urine is analyzed to determine its composition, guiding treatment and prevention. Prompt diagnosis is essential, and anyone with suspected kidney stones should seek medical evaluation.

At MASSH (Minimal Access Smart Surgery Hospital) in Delhi, advanced, minimally invasive treatments for kidney stones are tailored to each patient’s stone size, type, and location. Small stones may pass naturally with medication and hydration, while larger or complex stones are treated with procedures like RIRS (using a flexible endoscope and laser to break stones without incisions), URS (removing or fragmenting ureteral stones via the urinary tract), and PCNL or Miniperc (removing larger stones through a small back incision). Open surgery is rarely needed. MASSH provides personalized care with expert urologists guiding patients through every step. For consultations, visit MASSH or contact the hospital for details.

The benefits and risks of kidney stone treatments can vary depending on the specific procedure and individual circumstances. Non-invasive treatments such as medications and lifestyle changes may have fewer risks, but may not be effective for larger or more complex stones. Minimally invasive procedures can offer a quicker recovery time and reduced risk of complications compared to open surgery. However, these procedures may still carry some risks such as bleeding, infection, or damage to surrounding organs. Your doctor will evaluate your specific case and discuss the potential benefits and risks of each treatment option with you to determine the best course of action for managing your kidney stone symptoms.

The time it takes to pass a kidney stone varies depending on its size, location, and individual factors like urine flow and ureteral function. At facilities like MASSH Hospital in Delhi, minimally invasive procedures are commonly employed. Retrograde Intrarenal Surgery (RIRS) typically takes 1–2 hours to perform under anesthesia, with stones fragmented by laser; patients are often discharged the same day or within 24 hours, and complete stone clearance may occur within a few days as fragments pass in urine. Ureteroscopy (URS), used for ureteral stones, lasts about 30 minutes to 1 hour, with same-day discharge common; residual fragments usually pass within days to a week. Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL) or Miniperc, for larger stones, requires 1–3 hours, with a hospital stay of 1–3 days; stone clearance is often immediate, though small fragments may pass over 1–2 weeks. Open surgery, though rare, may involve a 4–7 days hospital stay and several weeks for full recovery. Post-procedure, patients are advised to drink plenty of fluids (2–3 liters daily) to aid fragment passage, with follow-up imaging within 1–4 weeks to confirm clearance. Recovery time varies based on stone size, procedure complexity, and individual health, but most patients resume normal activities within 1–2 weeks. Persistent symptoms or complications require prompt consultation with a healthcare provider.

Yes, Kidney stones can often be prevented through lifestyle changes, dietary adjustments, and medical management, particularly for those at higher risk. Staying well-hydrated is crucial; drinking 2.5–3 liters of water daily dilutes urine, reducing the concentration of stone-forming minerals like calcium, oxalate, and uric acid. A balanced diet helps: limit sodium intake (under 2,300 mg daily), reduce oxalate-rich foods (e.g., spinach, rhubarb), and moderate animal protein to lower uric acid levels. Consuming citrate-rich foods, such as lemons or oranges, can increase urinary citrate, which inhibits stone formation. Maintaining a healthy weight through regular exercise and avoiding obesity reduces metabolic risks. For individuals with specific conditions, like hyperparathyroidism or gout, managing these with medical guidance is essential. Regular urine and blood tests can identify abnormalities, allowing tailored interventions, such as medications (e.g., thiazide diuretics or potassium citrate) to adjust urine chemistry. Avoiding excessive use of supplements, like vitamin C or calcium-based antacids, also helps. Those with a history of stones should work with a healthcare provider to develop a personalized prevention plan, which may include periodic imaging or 24-hour urine analysis to monitor risk factors.

You should see a doctor for kidney stones if you experience symptoms or complications that suggest a stone is causing significant issues or cannot pass naturally. Seek medical attention promptly if you have severe, persistent pain in the side, back, or lower abdomen that doesn’t subside with over-the-counter pain relievers, as this may indicate a stone obstructing the urinary tract. Blood in the urine (pink, red, or brown), cloudy or foul-smelling urine, or a burning sensation during urination are red flags, especially if accompanied by fever, chills, or nausea, which could signal an infection or blockage. Difficulty urinating, reduced urine output, or a persistent urge to urinate also warrant a visit. If you suspect a stone but symptoms are mild, consult a doctor if the stone doesn’t pass within a few weeks (typically 1–4 weeks for small stones), as larger stones (over 6 mm) often require intervention. Those with a history of kidney stones, recurrent urinary infections, or underlying conditions like diabetes or gout should seek evaluation early to prevent complications. A doctor may order imaging (e.g., CT scan) or urine/blood tests to confirm the diagnosis and recommend treatments like medication or procedures (e.g., RIRS, URS). When in doubt, contact a healthcare provider for guidance.

Kidney stones can range from harmless to potentially dangerous, depending on their size, location, and complications. Small stones (under 4 mm) often pass naturally without significant issues, causing only temporary pain or discomfort. However, larger stones (over 6 mm) or those that obstruct the urinary tract can lead to serious problems. Untreated obstructions may cause urine backup, increasing the risk of kidney damage or reduced kidney function over time. Infections associated with stones, indicated by fever, chills, or cloudy urine, can escalate to urosepsis, a life-threatening condition if not treated promptly. Persistent pain, blood in the urine, or recurrent stones may also signal underlying metabolic or anatomical issues that require medical attention. Certain stone types, like struvite stones, are linked to chronic infections and can grow rapidly, posing greater risks. While most cases are manageable with hydration, medication, or minimally invasive procedures like RIRS or PCNL, delays in treatment can worsen outcomes. Individuals with risk factors, such as a history of stones or conditions like diabetes, should monitor symptoms closely and consult a healthcare provider to prevent complications.

Several groups are at higher risk of developing kidney stones due to a mix of physiological, lifestyle, and genetic factors. Men are more prone than women, with the highest incidence occurring in adults aged 20 to 50, though stones can form at any age. A family or personal history of kidney stones significantly increases risk, as genetic factors can affect how the body processes minerals like calcium or oxalate. Dehydration, often due to living in hot climates or insufficient fluid intake, concentrates urine, promoting crystal formation. Dietary patterns, such as high consumption of sodium, oxalate-rich foods (e.g., spinach, beets), or excessive animal protein, elevate stone-forming substances in urine. Obesity, diabetes, and metabolic disorders like hyperparathyroidism or gout disrupt urine chemistry, increasing susceptibility. Chronic urinary tract infections, inflammatory bowel disease, or conditions altering urine composition, such as after gastric bypass surgery, also heighten risk. Sedentary lifestyles and certain medications, including diuretics or overuse of calcium-based antacids, can contribute. Preventive measures like hydration and dietary changes can reduce risk, but those concerned should consult a healthcare provider for personalized guidance.

The cost of kidney stone treatment varies widely based on several factors. For small stones, non-invasive management like hydration and pain medication is typically low-cost. Minimally invasive procedures, such as Retrograde Intrarenal Surgery (RIRS), Ureteroscopy (URS), or Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL), involve higher expenses due to surgical equipment, anesthesia, and hospital stays, which may range from a few hours to a few days. Open surgery, though rare, is the most expensive due to longer hospitalization and recovery. Key cost factors include the procedure type, hospital location and reputation, surgeon’s expertise, diagnostic tests (e.g., CT scans, ultrasounds), and post-operative care like medications or stents. Additional costs may arise from complications or pre-existing conditions requiring extra care. Health insurance can offset expenses, depending on coverage. For accurate estimates, consult healthcare providers, as costs differ by region and facility.

MASSH (Minimal Access Smart Surgery Hospital) in Delhi provides advanced kidney stone treatment with minimally invasive techniques for effective results and quick recovery. Small stones are managed non-surgically with medications and hydration guidance. Larger stones are treated with Retrograde Intrarenal Surgery (RIRS), using laser via an endoscope, Ureteroscopy (URS) for ureteral stones, or Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL) and Miniperc for complex cases, all minimizing incisions and hospital stays. Open surgery is rare. MASSH offers precise diagnostics (e.g., CT scans), expert urologists, and personalized care, including dietary advice to prevent recurrence. Contact MASSH or visit their website for details.

Yes, kidney stones can come back, and they have a relatively high recurrence rate. Research shows that about 50% of people who have had a kidney stone will develop another within 5 to 10 years if no preventive steps are taken. The likelihood of recurrence depends on factors such as the type of stone, dietary habits, hydration levels, underlying medical conditions, and family history. Calcium oxalate stones, the most common type, are especially prone to returning. To reduce the risk of future stones, doctors often recommend drinking plenty of water, reducing salt and animal protein intake, and limiting high-oxalate foods like spinach and nuts if applicable. Personalized dietary advice and regular follow-ups may also help prevent recurrence.

During recovery from kidney stone treatment, especially after procedures like RIRS (Retrograde Intrarenal Surgery), you can expect some mild discomfort or pain for a few days. It’s common to experience blood in the urine, a burning sensation while urinating, and a feeling of urgency or frequency. You may also feel some lower back or abdominal soreness as your body heals. Staying well-hydrated is essential to help flush out any small remaining fragments and prevent new stones from forming. Your doctor may prescribe pain relievers, antibiotics, or medications to relax the ureter and make urination more comfortable. Recovery time after RIRS is generally quick, with most people returning to normal activities within a few days. Follow-up imaging or tests may be scheduled to ensure the stone has been completely removed.

To book an appointment for kidney stone treatment at MASSH (Minimal Access Smart Surgery Hospital), you can call us at +91 1135021666, submit your queries online at https://massh.in/contact-us, or visit the hospital’s outpatient department for a direct consultation. The hospital offers advanced treatment options such as RIRS, PCNL, and laser lithotripsy, performed by experienced urologists. We recommend bringing any previous medical records or imaging reports for a smoother consultation. Priority appointments may be available for urgent cases.

Yes, side lower back pain can be a symptom of kidney stones, especially if the stone is moving through the urinary tract. This pain, known as renal colic, often starts suddenly and is typically felt on one side of the lower back or flank, just below the ribs. It may come in waves and vary in intensity, sometimes radiating to the abdomen or groin. The pain can be sharp or cramping and may be accompanied by other symptoms like nausea, vomiting, blood in the urine, or frequent urination. However, similar pain can also be caused by muscle strain or other medical conditions, so it’s important to consult a doctor for proper diagnosis if you experience persistent or severe pain.

Yes, kidney stones can occur during pregnancy, though they are relatively rare, affecting about 1 in 1,500 pregnant women. Pregnancy increases the risk due to physiological changes, such as higher levels of calcium in the urine and reduced urine flow caused by the growing uterus pressing on the bladder and ureters. These factors can promote stone formation. Symptoms may include severe pain in the lower back or side, blood in the urine, nausea, or urinary urgency. Diagnosis and treatment are more complex during pregnancy to ensure the safety of both the mother and baby, often involving imaging like ultrasound and conservative measures like hydration and pain management. If you suspect kidney stones while pregnant, consult a healthcare provider promptly for proper evaluation and care.

The early signs of kidney stones often start with a sudden, sharp pain in the lower back or side, which may spread to the lower abdomen or groin. This pain can be intense and comes in waves as the stone moves through the urinary tract. Other common symptoms include frequent urination, a burning sensation while urinating, and urine that appears pink, red, or cloudy due to the presence of blood. Some individuals may also experience nausea, vomiting, or foul-smelling urine. Recognizing these symptoms early is essential for prompt diagnosis and treatment. If you notice any of these warning signs, it's important to consult a urologist for proper evaluation and care.

Kidney Stones

Explore Kidney Stones and Experience The Best Kidney stone treatment in Delhi

About Kidney Stones

There are several types of kidney stones, and each has a different composition:

Signs and Symptoms of Kidney Stones

Kidney Stones: Causes and Risk Factors

Some medical conditions further increase the risk of kidney stones: